![]() ![]() Using two and three collectors in line, it is confirmed that the fast particles have mass. The particle velocities measured by direct timing and by decay-time dilation correspond to up to 500 MeV u −1, and are relativistic. These fast particles can be observed at distances up to 2 m in a vacuum giving good time resolution. The muon lifetimes have also been confirmed accurately. The decaying signals after the laser pulse agree accurately with kaon (charged and neutral) and charged pion lifetimes. ![]() The MeV particle (meson) signal from laser induction is so large, 10 13 particles per laser shot that it can be measured with a fast oscilloscope (without pre-amplifiers) directly connected to a metal collector. Heat generation above break-even from nuclear fusion processes was reported in 2015 for the first time ever for D + D fusion. Clear signs of D + D fusion such as 4He and 3He ions have been observed. Particles with kinetic energy in the MeV range are easily released by nuclear processes in H(0) using < 0.4 J laser pulses. The CE experiments observe molecular fragments with up to 2.5 keV u −1 energy without nuclear processes. Rotational spectroscopy gives a precision of the interatomic distances in the femtometer range. This ultra-dense material has been extensively studied using laser-induced processes such as Coulomb explosions (CE), coupled to time-of-flight (TOF) and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF–MS) analysis of its molecular fragments, but also using rotational emission spectroscopy and nuclear processes. With measured interatomic distances of 2.3 ± 0.1 pm in the most commonly observed spin level s = 2 (at low pressure and temperature in the laboratory ), this is the densest form of matter that exists on Earth and probably also in the Universe (at spin level s = 1 it has the same density as white dwarf stars). The experimental and fundamental physics of the quantum material ultra-dense hydrogen H(0) was described in a review in Physica Scripta). Annihilation-based power generation has the potential to replace almost all other uses of fossil fuels within a few decades, also in mobile applications, including spaceflight, where it is the only method able to give relativistic rocket propulsion. Muon-induced fusion is able to directly replace most combustion-based power stations in the world, giving sustainable and environmentally harmless power (primarily heat), in this way eliminating most CO 2 emissions of human energy generation origin. The recently developed annihilation energy generation uses ordinary hydrogen in the form of ultradense hydrogen H(0) as fuel and is thus sustainable and has very high efficiency. This removes the 60-year-old enigma, concerning the so-called alpha sticking process. Due to the low energy cost of producing muons at < 1 MeV with this new source, the length of the so-called catalytic chain is unimportant. With the recent development of a high intensity muon source (10 13 muons per laser shot) (patented), this method is technically and economically feasible today. The well-known muon-induced fusion (often called muon- catalyzed fusion) can use non-radioactive deuterium as fuel. Similar results for T + D fusion do not exist even after 60 years of development, which gives no confidence in this approach. ![]() It should be noted that the first experiments with sustained laser-driven fusion above break-even using deuterium as fuel were published already in 2015. ![]() At least two better methods for producing the nuclear energy needed in the world indeed already exist, using deuterium or ordinary hydrogen as fuel, and more methods need to be developed. Thus, widespread use of fusion relying on tritium fuel should be avoided. However, tritium is not a sustainable fuel, since it likely will require fission reactors for its production, and since it is a dangerous material due to its radioactivity with main risks of release to the environment during tritium production, transport and refuelling operations. These types of fusion reactors use tritium as fuel for the T + D reaction. Large-scale fusion reactors using hydrogen isotopes as fuel are under development at several places in the world. ![]()
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